India’s Water Crisis & Water Resources Governance

Syllabus: GS3/Resources

Context

• As India aims to achieve SDG-6 (Clean Water and Sanitation) and realise its vision of becoming a developed nation by 2047, strengthening water governance will be critical for economic growth, food security, and social stability.

About India’s Water Paradox: Abundance Amid Scarcity

• India supports nearly 18% of the global population but possesses only about 4% of the world’s freshwater resources. According to the NITI Aayog Composite Water Management Index (2018):
  • Around 600 million Indians face high to extreme water stress.
  • Nearly 21 major cities risk groundwater depletion.
  • Water demand is projected to exceed supply by 2030.
• At the same time, India receives substantial rainfall annually, nearly 4,000 billion cubic metres (BCM).
  • But only around 1,100 BCM is considered utilisable because of inadequate storage infrastructure, uneven geographical distribution of rainfall, seasonal concentration of monsoon rains, and ecological and environmental limitations.
• Thus, the crisis is less about availability and more about efficient management.

Declining Per Capita Water Availability

• Growing Stress on Water Resources: India’s per capita water availability has sharply declined: above 5,000 cubic metres (1951); and around 1,400 cubic metres (present).
  • This decline is driven by population growth, urbanisation, industrialisation, and climate variability.

• India is approaching the threshold of water stress (1,700 cubic metres) and may soon enter the category of water scarcity (below 1,000 cubic metres).
• Crisis Related To Groundwater: India is the largest user of groundwater globally, accounting for nearly 25% of global extraction.
  • Groundwater has enabled Green Revolution-led agricultural expansion, rural drinking water supply, and livelihood security.
  • However, over-extraction has resulted in falling water tables, drying wells, land subsidence, and water quality deterioration.
  • States such as Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, and parts of Karnataka face severe groundwater depletion.
  • It highlights that India’s water challenge is fundamentally an institutional and governance crisis.

Institutional Architecture of Water Governance in India

• Constitutional and Federal Structure: Water is primarily a State subject under the Schedule VII of the Constitution. However, the Union government plays a coordinating and policy-support role.
• Key Institutions:
  • Ministry of Jal Shakti: Nodal ministry for water resources, drinking water, and sanitation. It was formed by merging ministries dealing with water resources and drinking water.
  • Central Water Commission (CWC): It focuses on surface water management, flood control, river basin planning, and dam safety.
  • Central Ground Water Board (CGWB): It assesses groundwater resources, and provides scientific inputs for aquifer management.
  • NITI Aayog: It introduced the Composite Water Management Index (CWMI) to promote competitive and cooperative federalism in water governance.

Major Government Initiatives

• Jal Jeevan Mission (JJM): It was launched in 2019 to provide functional household tap connections (FHTCs) to rural households.
  • It enhances rural health and sanitation, reduces burden on women, and strengthens decentralised water management.
  • The mission has now been extended till 2028.
• Atal Bhujal Yojana (ATAL JAL): It focuses on sustainable groundwater management in water-stressed regions. Its key features include community participation, water budgeting, aquifer mapping, and behavioural change.
  • It marks a shift from supply-side to demand-side management.
• Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchayee Yojana (PMKSY): Its objective is ‘Per Drop More Crop’. Its components are micro-irrigation, drip and sprinkler systems, and water-efficient agriculture.
  • Irrigation efficiency is vital since agriculture consumes nearly 80% of India’s freshwater.
• Atal Mission for Rejuvenation and Urban Transformation (AMRUT) Mission: It aims to improve urban water supply, develop sewage treatment systems, and promote wastewater reuse.
  • Urban India faces increasing pressure from rapid population growth and pollution.
• Namami Gange Programme: Integrated river rejuvenation programme focusing on pollution control, sewage treatment, biodiversity conservation, and riverfront development.
  • It reflects a basin-based approach to river governance.

Challenges in Water Governance

• Institutional Fragmentation: Multiple agencies handle irrigation, drinking water, groundwater, sanitation, and urban water supply.
  • It creates policy overlaps, coordination failures, and weak accountability.
• Interstate Water Disputes: Conflicts such as Cauvery dispute, Krishna water dispute, and Ravi-Beas conflict show the limitations of cooperative federalism in water sharing.
• Climate Change: Changing rainfall patterns are increasing floods, droughts, and extreme weather events. It necessitates climate-resilient water governance.
• Pollution and Water Quality: According to CPCB reports, rivers are heavily polluted due to untreated sewage and industrial discharge; and groundwater contamination by arsenic and fluoride affects several States.

Way Forward: Towards a Circular Water Economy

• Need for Integrated Water Resource Management (IWRM): India needs to transition from a linear “use and discard” model to a circular water economy.
• Key measures include:
  • Wastewater Recycling: Reuse treated wastewater in industry and agriculture; and reduce freshwater demand.
  • Efficient Irrigation: Crop diversification, water-efficient crops, and precision agriculture.
  • Rainwater Harvesting: Urban rooftop systems, and revival of traditional tanks and ponds.
  • Technological Innovation: Smart metering, GIS mapping, IoT-based monitoring, and aquifer mapping.
  • Community Participation: Panchayat-led water governance, local water budgeting, and participatory groundwater management.
• India’s water future depends not merely on rainfall but on governance reforms. The following steps are essential:
  • Strengthening river basin management authorities
  • Enhancing Centre-State coordination
  • Promoting data-driven policymaking
  • Encouraging behavioural change in water use
  • Integrating climate adaptation into water planning
  • Expanding wastewater reuse and recycling
  • Improving urban water infrastructure
• A sustainable and equitable water governance framework is indispensable for achieving SDG-6, food security, public health, economic resilience, and environmental sustainability.

Source: TH