Archaeologists Discovered Rare Kushana-era coins
Syllabus: GS1/Ancient History
Context
- Pakistani archaeologists found rare decorative stones and coins while excavating a UNESCO-listed site near the historic city of Takshashila.
About
- The discoveries were made at the ancient Bhir Mound, where experts unearthed decorative stones dating to the 6th century BC and coins from the 2nd century AD.
- Metamorphic decorative stone identified as lapis lazuli, alongside the rare bronze coins attributed to the Kushan dynasty.
- Coins bear the image of Emperor Vasudeva.
- Vasudeva is recognised by historians as the last of the ‘great Kushan rulers’ who presided over the region.
Kushans
- Origin: Central Asian nomadic tribe, originally part of the Yuezhi confederation.
- Migrated from north-west China to Bactria (present-day Afghanistan–Central Asia).
- Kujula Kadphises was the founder of the Kushan rule in India, established in north-western India around 1st century CE.
- Empire: Stretched from Central Asia and Afghanistan to Punjab, Kashmir, Gangetic plains, and parts of Central India
- Kanishka I was the greatest Kushan ruler, whose empire extended from Central Asia, Afghanistan, Kashmir, Punjab, Gangetic plains up to Varanasi.
- Key cities: Purushapura (Peshawar – capital under Kanishka), Mathura, Taxila.
- Religion: Widespread Kushan patronage of Buddhism during this era led to the construction of stupas, monasteries, and vast religious complexes.
- Coins: The Kushans issued gold, silver and copper coins.
- The period also marked the rise of Gandharan art, a distinctive synthesis of Greek, Roman, Persian, and Indian traditions, with Takshashila serving as its core hub.
- Decline: Decline after 3rd century CE due to Sassanian pressure and rise of Gupta power.
Source: TH
U.S. Takeover of Greenland would Mark End of NATO: Denmark
Syllabus: GS2/Regional Groupings
Context
- The Prime Minister of Denmark said that if Trump took over Greenland that would mark an end of the Nato military alliance.
About NATO
- NATO, or the North Atlantic Treaty Organization, is a military alliance of countries.
- Establishment: It was founded in 1949 with the signing of the North Atlantic Treaty, more popularly known as the Washington Treaty.
- Aim: To ensure the security and defense of its member countries through collective defense.
- Founding Members: The original members of NATO were Belgium, Canada, Denmark, France, Iceland, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, the United Kingdom, and the United States.
- Collective Defense: The cornerstone of NATO is Article 5 of the North Atlantic Treaty, which states that an armed attack against one or more of its members is considered an attack against all members.
- Decision-Making: Decisions within NATO are made on the basis of consensus among member countries.
- The North Atlantic Council, which includes the ambassadors of all member countries, is the principal political decision-making body.
- Members: It has 32 member countries, Finland and Sweden became the 31st and 32nd members respectively.
- On signing the Treaty, countries voluntarily commit themselves to participating in the political consultations and military activities of the Organization.
Source: TH
Global Minimum Tax
Syllabus: GS3/Economy
Context
- Organisation for Economic Co-operation & Development (OECD) has finalized an agreement to exempt US-based multinationals from 15% global minimum tax.
About
- Under the agreement, other countries would be effectively blocked from imposing additional taxes on foreign subsidiaries of US multinationals to compensate for profits that are under-taxed in other jurisdictions.
- Minimum Tax Rules: The global minimum tax was created to prevent multinational companies from dodging tax bills by locating operations and booking income in low-tax countries.
- Aim: To curb tax avoidance by multinational enterprises (MNEs) shifting profits to low- or no-tax jurisdictions.
- It sets a global minimum effective corporate tax rate of 15%.
- It applies to large MNEs with annual global turnover ≥ €750 million.
Organisation for Economic Co-operation & Development (OECD)
- The OECD is an intergovernmental organisation that promotes economic development, policy coordination, and global cooperation.
- Motto: “Better Policies for Better Lives.”
- Established in 1961, succeeding the Organisation for European Economic Co-operation (OEEC).
- Headquarters: Paris, France.
- Membership: 38 member countries (mainly developed economies) and India is not a member.
Source: TH
Indian Railways Becomes the Biggest Electrified Rail System Globally
Syllabus: GS3/ Infrastructure
In News
- Indian Railways has become the largest electrified rail network in the world, with about 99.2% of its broad-gauge network electrified by November 2025, marking a major milestone under Mission 100% Railway Electrification.
About
- Indian Railways is India’s national transporter and one of the world’s largest railway networks.
- It has achieved near-complete electrification of its broad-gauge routes, surpassing other major global railway systems in scale.
- Electrification rate surged from 1.42 km/day (2004–14) to over 15 km/day (2019–25) and 25 States/UTs fully electrified.
Source: TH
Opinion Trading
Syllabus: GS2/IR/GS3/Economy
In News
- A gambler made nearly half a million dollars by betting on Venezuelan President Nicolás Maduro’s capture just before it was officially announced, sparking questions about Opinion trading platforms.
What are Opinion trading platforms?
- Opinion trading platforms let users bet on the outcome of yes/no events, with payouts depending on whether the prediction is correct.
- These platforms often resemble investment platforms, using terms like trading, profits, and stop loss.
- Users can place predictions on events such as sports, politics, weather, or crypto, earning money if their prediction is right and losing money if it is wrong.
Status Across the globe
- The opinion trading sector is regulated across countries like the US, UK and Australia.
- In the US, it is regulated by the Commodity Futures Trading Commission (CFTC), one the country’s two main stock market regulators.
Regulation In India
- India cracked down on prediction markets starting in early 2025, when SEBI warned that such platforms were unregulated, lacked investor protection, and could involve illegal securities trading.
- In August 2025, the government imposed a blanket ban on online money gaming under the Promotion and Regulation of Online Gaming Act, 2025, effectively shutting down opinion trading platforms like Probo and Opinio.
- The law introduced strict penalties, including jail terms, heavy fines, bans on promotion, and restrictions on banking support.
- At its peak, the sector had over 5 crore users and raised ₹4,200 crore from major investors.
Source :IE
OPEC+
Syllabus: GS2/IR
Context
- OPEC+ has agreed in principle to maintain steady oil output despite rising political tensions among key members and widening geopolitical uncertainty.
| About OPECThe Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) is a permanent, intergovernmental Organization, established in 1960 at the Baghdad Conference by Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia and Venezuela.Currently, it has 12 members, viz. Algeria, Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Libya, Nigeria, Saudi Arabia, the United Arab Emirates and Venezuela.Headquartered in Vienna, Austria (a non-member state), its objective is to co-ordinate and unify petroleum policies among Member Countries, in order to secure fair and stable prices for petroleum producers. |
OPEC+ (OPEC Plus)
- OPEC+ has 22 members, made up of 10 major oil producing countries (Russia, Kazakhstan, Azerbaijan, Brunei, Bahrain, Mexico, Oman, South Sudan, Sudan and Malaysia), along with the 12 OPEC members.
- The OPEC+ was formed in 2016 following the adoption of the Algiers Accord by OPEC members and the signing of the Vienna Agreement between OPEC and other major oil-exporting countries.
- The move was largely a response to sharply falling oil prices caused by a surge in U.S. shale oil production.
Source: AIR
Mpemba Effect
Syllabus: GS3/ Science & Technology
In News
- Indian scientists have developed the first supercomputer-based simulation that successfully reproduces the Mpemba effect, helping resolve a long-standing scientific paradox as to why hot water can freeze faster than cold water under certain conditions.
About Mpemba Effect
- The Mpemba effect is a counterintuitive physical phenomenon in which hot water freezes faster than cold water when both are placed under similar conditions.
- It is named after Erasto Mpemba, who reported it scientifically in 1969.
- The phenomenon was observed earlier by thinkers such as Aristotle, Francis Bacon, and René Descartes, but lacked a satisfactory explanation for centuries.
- No single mechanism fully explains it, but key factors include faster evaporation from hot water, stronger convection currents, reduced supercooling due to fewer dissolved gases, and better heat transfer after melting surface frost.
Applications
- Climate science & cryosphere studies: Better modelling of ice formation and freezing processes.
- Industrial freezing & food processing: Optimising cooling and freezing efficiency.
- Materials science: Understanding crystallisation and thermal history effects.
Source: AIR
Biohappiness
Syllabus: GS3/Economy/Environment
In News
- The M.S. Swaminathan Research Foundation has begun work on a project on Biohappiness in Keyi Panyor district of Arunachal Pradesh.
| Do you know?Keyi Panyor became Arunachal Pradesh’s 26th district, with its headquarters at Ter Gapin-Sam Sarth, fulfilling a long-standing demand of the Nyishi community. |
BioHappiness
- It is a term coined by late agricultural scientist Dr. M.S. Swaminathan.
- It is a state of well-being and fulfillment achieved by conserving and using biodiversity to improve human health, nutrition, and livelihoods, fostering harmony between people and nature, as explained in his book In Search of Biohappiness: Biodiversity and Food, Health and Livelihood Security.
- The new Biohappiness Project in Keyi Panyor district of Arunachal Pradesh would look at the livelihoods of the residents, the agro-biodiversity of the district, and other ecological aspects within its boundaries.
Source :TH
