Down To Earth (01-15 October, 2025)

Fragility Amplified by Unsustainable Growth

• The Himalayas, stretching across five countries and nurturing the headwaters of major rivers. They are living ecosystems and cultural landscapes that sustain nearly 240 million people.
• Himalayan environmental degradation observed that the construction of highways, tunnels, and hydropower projects has been prioritized without adequate ecological safeguards.
• The Char Dham Highway project and multiple run-of-the-river hydropower dams have destabilized slopes, disrupted aquifers, and led to recurring disasters such as those in Joshimath and Chamoli.
• According to the National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA), the frequency of ‘compound disasters’—where landslides coincide with floods— has doubled in the past decade due to deforestation and slope destabilization.
• It indicates that the Himalayas are not just facing natural hazards but human-induced vulnerabilities.

Climate Change and the New Normal

• Reports by the Indian Institute of Science (IISc) and the Himalayan State Climate Outlook 2025 highlight an alarming trend: the Himalayan glaciers are retreating faster than the global average.
• In states like Sikkim and Himachal Pradesh, glacier melt contributes to flash floods and the sudden formation of glacial lakes.
• The Sikkim flood (2023) was caused by the South Lhonak Lake outburst, and was intensified by unusually high rainfall and infrastructure exposure along river valleys.
• The combination of climate instability and overconstruction is creating a dangerous feedback loop, where developmental projects amplify climate risks, and climate risks, in turn, erode development gains.
• Local Livelihoods and the Displacement Dilemma: Hydropower projects, mining, and road expansion have uprooted thousands of families while offering few long-term economic benefits.
• MoEFCC emphasized that localized, small-scale economies — such as eco-tourism, traditional agriculture, and forest-based livelihoods — are better suited for these terrains than extractive models of growth.

Governance and Policy Gaps

• Environmental Impact Assessments (EIAs) are often diluted, and state disaster management plans are reactive rather than preventive.
• The National Mission for Sustaining the Himalayan Ecosystem (2023) called for integrated watershed management, but implementation remains sporadic.
• The Himalayan Sustainable Development Forum (2024) urged the inclusion of indigenous knowledge systems and community-based monitoring into official planning.
• It could bridge the gap between top-down development and ground-level realities.

Path Toward Resilience

• Rethinking development in the Himalayas requires balancing ecology, economy, and equity.
• The region needs a ‘mountain logic’—a framework that values biodiversity, water security, and cultural continuity over short-term GDP gains, rather than replicating the plains’ industrial growth.
• Resilient Himalayan development means:
• Respecting eco-zones as no-construction areas.
• Investing in climate-resilient infrastructure.
• Empowering local governance institutions like Van Panchayats.
• Integrating early warning systems for landslides and glacial lake outbursts.
• Respecting Carrying Capacity: Development needs to stay within the region’s carrying capacity.
• Urban expansion has outpaced ecological tolerance — while population in Himalayan states grew 1.5 times between 1971 and 2021, the urban population quadrupled.
• Urban planning needs to identify no-construction zones, establish slope-specific building codes, and develop water and sewage systems suited for mountainous terrains.
• Rethinking Development Models: Environmentalists have argued for a ‘localization model of growth’ — a shift away from large-scale industrial development toward community-led, eco-sensitive initiatives. It involves:
• Limiting construction on slopes above a certain gradient.
• Redefining carrying capacity for Himalayan towns.
• Restoring degraded watersheds and springs.
• Promoting decentralized renewable energy systems.

Gendered and Regional Dimensions Of Cancer in India

Context

• A recent analysis by the National Cancer Registry Programme (NCRP) highlights the disparities in India’s cancer burden across gender, geography, and socio-economic settings.

Gender Differences in Cancer Burden

• Higher Incidence Among Women: In 2024, NCRP data showed 1.56 million cancer cases, with 780,000 each among men and women.
• However, the Crude Incidence Rate (CIR) was slightly higher among women (113.3) than men (107.4).
• Earlier data from 2020 reported a similar trend— 103.6 among women versus 94.1 among men.

Why Are Women at Greater Risk?

• According to a 2022 Cancer Epidemiology study, multiple factors contribute to women’s heightened vulnerability:
• Lifestyle and occupational changes leading to reduced physical activity.
• Dietary habits, tobacco and alcohol use.
• Reproductive patterns, including delayed childbirth.
• Hormone-related diseases—notably breast and ovarian cancers—are linked to pollution, cosmetics, and processed foods.
• These cancers tend to have higher survival rates when detected early, explaining women’s lower mortality despite higher incidence.
• Common Cancers by Gender:
• Men: Oral, lung, and prostate cancers.
• Women: Breast, cervical, and ovarian cancers.

Rising Male Mortality and Noncommunicable Diseases

• A Lancet study noted a steady rise in the probability of dying from noncommunicable diseases (NCDs) — including cancer — among Indian men, from 56% in 2001 to 57.9% in 2019.

• India is one of only five countries where male lung cancer deaths continue to increase, even as global mortality declines.
• For women, the probability rose from 46.6% in 2010 to 48.7% in 2019, still lower than that for men.

Transmission Trap: Challenges With India’s Renewable Energy

Context

• Despite record solar and wind installations in India, inadequate transmission infrastructure and poor demand forecasting are forcing large-scale curtailments — leaving clean energy projects idle and developers counting heavy losses.

Curtailments and Mounting Losses

• At least 30 solar and wind projects across India faced curtailments, resulting in losses of up to ₹700 crore, according to industry insiders between March and August 2025.
  • Plants in Rajasthan, Gujarat, Maharashtra, and Tamil Nadu—key renewable hubs—are among the hardest hit.
• In Rajasthan alone, projects totaling 4 GW of capacity were ordered to cut generation by nearly half during peak midday hours, leading to losses of around ₹250 crore.
• Developers such as Adani Renewable Energy, Tata Power, and Azure Power have been affected.

Transmission Bottlenecks

• At the heart of the crisis lies India’s slow progress in building and upgrading electricity transmission lines.
• Renewable projects require General Network Access (GNA) from the Central Electricity Regulatory Commission (CERC) to feed power into the grid.
• However, many new projects are operating on Temporary General Network Access (TGNA), which offers only conditional grid access without compensation for curtailments.
• The National Solar Energy Federation of India (NSEFI) reported that of 22.5 GW of commissioned solar capacity in Rajasthan, nearly 8.5 GW operates under TGNA due to delayed transmission lines.
• These delays often stretch 18–20 months, stalling project utilization and investment returns.

Forecasting Failures and Demand Slumps

• Beyond transmission delays, inaccurate demand forecasting has worsened curtailments. The Central Electricity Authority (CEA) had predicted a 2025 peak demand of 270 GW, but unexpected monsoon patterns reduced consumption sharply.
• As a result, India’s grid operators curtailed nearly 10 GW of power daily during low-demand hours to maintain grid stability. Even coal plants were affected, running at only 40% capacity, a level detrimental to their machinery.

Economic and Policy Impacts

• The repeated curtailments are shaking investor confidence. Under GNA, developers receive compensation for forced outages through Power Purchase Agreements (PPAs).
• Under TGNA, however, no compensation is provided, leaving developers to absorb the full financial hit.
• Industry bodies warn that this uncertainty could jeopardize India’s 500 GW non-fossil fuel target by 2030.
• New renewable tenders may face reduced participation as investors re-evaluate risks.

Underlying Causes

• Transmission Delays: Construction of lines typically takes 2–3 years, outpacing the 18–24 month project timelines for solar and wind plants.
• Regulatory Gaps: Limited clarity on GNA issuance and compensation for curtailed TGNA projects.
• Planning Mismatch: Renewable capacity has expanded faster than infrastructure to integrate it.
• Environmental and Legal Hurdles: Land acquisition and clearance delays for new lines exacerbate grid congestion.

Government Response

• Officials at the Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE) acknowledge the issue but attribute curtailments to ‘emergencies’.
• The ministry has yet to quantify the total losses but has pledged to coordinate with the CEA and Union Ministry of Power for a detailed assessment.

Proposed Solutions

• Accelerate Transmission Expansion: Experts urge immediate prioritization of transmission projects in high-generation states.
• High Voltage Direct Current (HVDC) lines, capable of transferring large loads over long distances, could ease congestion and link regions with varying demand profiles.
• Deploy Energy Storage Systems: Battery Energy Storage Systems (BESS)—whose costs have fallen by 70% in four years—can store excess midday power and release it during peak evening demand.
• Improve Forecasting and Planning: The CEA is enhancing its weather forecasting model from a 12 km × 12 km to 4 km × 4 km resolution for more localized predictions.
• It plans to shift from a five-year to an annual planning cycle for better responsiveness.
• Regulatory and Financial Reforms: The NSEFI has proposed compensation for curtailed developers through the Power Systems Development Fund, which currently supports only public transmission upgrades.

Sand Replenishment Study a Legal Prerequisite for Mining Clearances: Supreme Court

Context

• Recently, the Supreme Court of India ruled that a scientific assessment of river sand replenishment is now a legal requirement for obtaining environmental clearance to mine river sand.

Background: Srinagar NHAI Project Case

• The Jammu and Kashmir State Environment Impact Assessment Authority (JKEIAA) had granted environmental clearance to three sand mining sites associated with the Srinagar ring road and four-lane bypass project, despite the Jammu and Kashmir Expert Appraisal Committee (JKEAC) having earlier rejected the projects on grounds of over-exploitation and absence of a replenishment study.
• Case before the National Green Tribunal (NGT) highlighted multiple violations, including:
• Absence of a replenishment study in the District Survey Report (DSR);
• Use of prohibited heavy machinery, and
• Violation of the J&K Minor Mineral Concession Rules (2016), which bars mining within 25 metres of river embankments.

NGT and Supreme Court Decisions

• The NGT ruled that a DSR without a replenishment study is incomplete, making any environmental clearance based on it illegal.
• It subsequently cancelled all three ECs granted in 2022.
• The project proponents — Union Territory of Jammu and Kashmir and NHAI — appealed to the Supreme Court, which upheld the NGT’s decision.
  •  The apex court confirmed that ‘sand mining can only be granted when DSR is complete and effective. Any clearance based on a draft DSR is legally invalid’.
• The Court emphasized that DSRs need to comply with the Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) Notification, 2016, and the Sustainable Sand Mining Management Guidelines, 2016 and 2020, ensuring decisions are made on scientific grounds and after assessing the annual sand replenishment rate.

Implementation Challenges and Expert Concerns

• Replenishment Studies Require Time: Experts note that scientific replenishment studies are long-term exercises, as it takes at least three years of study, covering pre- and post-monsoon seasons, to estimate average replenishment accurately.
• Typical licences allow extraction of up to 1 metre of sand, but miners often extract up to five times that limit, causing severe ecological harm.
• A robust replenishment study, therefore, is essential for sustainable mining.
• Accuracy and Practical Constraints: Replenishment estimates can only be 70% accurate due to unpredictable factors like rainfall, flow velocity, and weather variability.
• Excessive mining damages rivers, no mining at all can raise flood risks, as sediment buildup reduces a river’s carrying capacity.

Conclusion

• The Supreme Court’s 2025 judgement establishes a critical precedent for environmentally responsible sand mining in India.
• By mandating replenishment studies as a legal prerequisite for environmental clearances, it reinforces the importance of scientific validation, sustainable resource management, and legal accountability.

Africa’s Climate Resilience: Homegrown Solutions Amid Global Injustice

Context

• Africa stands at the frontline of the global climate crisis — a paradox given its negligible contribution to the problem.

About Africa: A Continent Under Unequal Pressure

• Sub-Saharan Africa accounts for just 1.9% of global cumulative fossil fuel emissions, with South Africa alone responsible for 1.3%. But, the region bears a disproportionate share of climate-induced suffering.
• According to the Brookings Institution, seven of the ten most climate-vulnerable countries in the world are in Africa.
• The IPCC’s Sixth Assessment Report (2021) highlights that the continent has warmed faster than the global average over the past 60 years — a pace unmatched in two millennia.

Escalating Impacts Across the Continent

• The World Meteorological Organization’s (WMO) ‘State of Climate in Africa 2024’ report, reveals that 2024 ranked as either the warmest or secondwarmest year in Africa’s history.
• The year brought devastating floods, droughts, and marine heatwaves, crippling agricultural systems and threatening food security for millions.
• Forecasts indicate that Africa could surpass the 1.5°C warming threshold by 2040, a development that would amplify losses in agriculture, health, and infrastructure — sectors on which the majority of Africans depend for their livelihoods.

Financial Burden of Climate Ambition

• African countries need an estimated US $2.8 trillion between 2020 and 2030, to fulfill their Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) under the Paris Agreement.
• Alarmingly, only 24% of this amount is earmarked for adaptation — despite Africa’s acute vulnerability to climate extremes.
• At the same time, economic headwinds and limited fiscal capacity have deepened dependence on foreign loans.
• The UN’s ‘World Economic Situation and Prospects 2025’ warns that African nations are expected to allocate nearly 30% of government revenue to debt servicing in 2025, with 25 countries already devoting over 10% of their revenue to net interest payments.
• It restricts investment in climate resilience and forces nations to borrow even more for disaster recovery.

Resilience Through Innovation and Tradition

• African nations are refusing to remain passive victims, despite formidable challenges.
• They are forging pragmatic, hybrid solutions that blend traditional ecological knowledge with modern technological innovation.
• Across the continent, governments and communities are rolling out national strategies for net-zero emissions, community-based adaptation programs, and nature-based solutions such as reforestation, sustainable water management, and droughtresistant agriculture.
• This bottom-up, inclusive approach offers a blueprint for the broader Global South, showcasing how nations with limited resources can craft effective, locally rooted responses to global crises.

Conclusion: A Call for Climate Justice

• Africa’s predicament underscores a deep climate injustice — a continent least responsible for emissions, but most burdened by their consequences.
• As the world races to stabilize the planet’s temperature, global financial systems and climate finance mechanisms need to evolve to ensure equitable access to funding, debt relief, and technology transfer.
• Africa’s resilience and innovation illuminate a path forward — one that intertwines sustainability, equity, and indigenous wisdom.