Down To Earth (01-15 December, 2025)

Context

• The UN’s 30th climate summit, COP30 in Belém, Brazil, was billed as the ‘COP of truth and implementation’, as it exposed deep fractures within the global climate regime and highlighted the growing irrelevance of a system struggling to keep pace with the worsening crisis.

A Warming World on the Brink

• Ahead of the summit, the WMO reported that 2025 is likely to be the second or third warmest year on record, extending the streak of extreme global heat.
• The UN Environment Programme’s ‘Emissions Gap Report’ warned that the world is heading for 2.8°C of warming, with the 1.5°C threshold likely to be breached within the next decade.
• Overshooting this limit is likely to trigger irreversible climate feedback — melting ice sheets, collapsing ecosystems, and unmanageable heatwaves.

Belém Political Package: More Symbolism Than Substance

• The Brazilian presidency adopted the Belém Political Package, heralded as the core outcome of COP30. Its highlights included:
• A new mechanism for international cooperation on a just transition, aimed at balancing development and decarbonization.
• Vague commitments to triple adaptation finance by 2035.
• A new work programme under Article 9 of the Paris Agreement to track financial flows from developed to developing countries.
• But, crucially, no reference was made to phasing out fossil fuels—a glaring omission in a year when record wildfires and droughts underscored the urgency of transition.
• Brazil deferred the fossil fuel discussion to a later roadmap, mirroring the slow diplomacy described as ‘climate multilateralism caught in paralysis’.

Divided and Distrustful: North–South Rift Deepens

• The G77+China bloc — a coalition of 134 developing nations—emerged as a significant force, demanding accountability and finance.
• However, developed nations attempted to scapegoat large developing economies as ‘blockers’ of ambition, exposing what DTE called a ‘crisis of legitimacy in the COP process’.
• The developed world’s insistence on framing ambition without equity drew criticism.
• It is observed that ‘the Global North continues to posture as a climate leader while failing to meet its own pledges’, noting that many NDCs (nationally determined contributions) from developed countries remain insufficient or unimplemented.
• Meanwhile, countries like China and India—often targeted as obstructors—are in fact expanding renewable energy capacity at record pace.
• China leads globally in clean tech deployment, and India is set to exceed its 2030 solar targets by 2027.

Global Mutirão: A Symbolic ‘Collective Effort’

• Brazil’s presidency introduced the Global Mutirão Decision (‘mutirão’ meaning collective effort).
• It bundled unresolved developing-country demands outside the formal negotiation tracks. The four key issues addressed were:
• Climate finance from developed to developing nations.
• The 1.5°C implementation gap.
• Transparency under the Paris Agreement.
• Trade-related climate measures and their fairness.

Context

• India is setting up large-scale data centres in water-scarce regions as it races to expand its digital capabilities, raising alarms about the long-term sustainability of India’s digital growth.

More About News

• India is rapidly positioning itself as a global hub for data centres—the backbone infrastructure powering the world’s digital operations.
• These facilities store and process vast amounts of data generated by online activities, artificial intelligence (AI) systems, and cloud services.
• However, behind this technological leap lies a pressing environmental challenge: the immense water requirement for cooling servers and maintaining system efficiency.

India’s Emerging Data Centre Hub

• The 1990s saw the birth of data centres, but the rise of cloud computing, internet penetration, and AI workloads has exponentially increased their demand.
• McKinsey & Company (2024) projects that by 2030, 70% of new data centre capacity will cater to AI-related operations.
• According to a Deloitte report (2025), India now hosts around 150 operational data centres across major Tier-1 cities, with a combined IT load capacity of 1,200–1,300 MW.
• The report predicts India will record the highest capacity addition in the Asia-Pacific region between 2024 and 2026, outpacing countries like Japan and Singapore.
• India’s advantages—lower operational costs, skilled workforce, and strategic location—make it a global favourite. But these benefits mask a growing environmental cost.

Data Centres and Their Thirst for Water

• A data centre houses high-performance servers, routers, and storage systems, all of which generate substantial heat during operation.
• Most facilities use water-based cooling systems, drawing from groundwater or surface water sources to prevent overheating.
• A 1 MW data centre with water-based cooling typically consumes about 26 million litres of water annually.
• Yotta’s facility, with a capacity of 30 MW, could potentially use 780 million litres per year—enough to meet the annual domestic water needs of around 15,830 urban residents.
• Although Yotta claims to use air-based cooling technology, limiting water use to 6 million litres per year, its total approved limit stands at 43 million litres annually.

Hidden Cost: Water Stress and Environmental Impact

• India ranks among the top 25 most water-stressed countries, as per the World Resources Institute’s Aqueduct Water Risk Atlas.
• Their concentration in already water-stressed areas could exacerbate regional water crises, with data centres being heavy water consumers.
• A 2025 Planet Tracker analysis found that 50 data centres in India are located in ‘extremely high’ water-stressed regions, second only to Indonesia in Asia.
• The water footprint of these facilities varies by climate, size, and technology, but collectively, they pose a substantial risk to groundwater sustainability.

Environmental Clearance and Oversight Gaps

• Data centre projects in Uttar Pradesh require environmental clearance from the State-level Environmental Impact Assessment Authority (SEIAA), based on recommendations from the State-level Expert Appraisal Committee (SEAC).
• Yotta received clearance in 2020, conditional upon obtaining groundwater extraction permission from the Central Ground Water Authority (CGWA).
• However, officials have not confirmed whether such permission was granted, and the company maintains that no borewells have been dug.
• Furthermore, Yotta has not published an Environmental, Social, and Governance (ESG) report, despite growing calls for corporate transparency in sustainability practices.

Local Impacts and the Road Ahead

• Investigations in Bengaluru and Gautam Buddha Nagar, two of India’s major IT hubs, reveal growing tensions between technological progress and local water security.
• Residents face the daily reality of declining groundwater levels and insufficient water access, while companies highlight innovation and economic growth.
• India’s digital expansion could deepen existing inequalities and environmental degradation, without stronger environmental regulation, transparency, and water-efficient technologies.

Context

• The state of Punjab in India needs to shift from short-term recovery to long-term flood management, as it faced the worst flood in four decades due to the southwest monsoon in 2025.

Punjab’s Borewells & Agricultural Role

• It has 1.4 million abandoned borewells that became central to Punjab’s agricultural landscape during the Green Revolution of the 1960s.
• The number of borewells multiplied rapidly—especially after 1997–98, when water tables stood around 12 metres, as farmers switched to groundwater irrigation.
• However, decades of over-extraction have since pushed groundwater levels down to depths of 150 metres or more, rendering many borewells defunct.

Turning a Threat into an Opportunity

• Research by the ICAR–Indian Institute of Soil and Water Conservation (IISWC) demonstrates that abandoned borewells can be revived into effective underground recharge systems with minor modifications.
• It begins with a hydrogeological assessment to verify the borewell’s depth, water quality, and structural condition.
• Once deemed safe, the borewell is cleaned, flushed, and refitted with slotted PVC pipes to facilitate filtration and infiltration.
• Recharge Pit Design: A recharge shaft is then constructed following the Indian Standard IS 15797:2008.
• The shaft’s filter media—a layered combination of coarse sand, gravel, and pebbles—ensures that only clean water percolates downward.
• A recharge pit surrounds the borewell, lined with brick, stone, or reinforced concrete. Rainwater runoff passes through a silt trap or settling chamber before entering the borewell, preventing clogging.
• The design includes safety features such as protective grills and annual disinfection. Routine maintenance—particularly desilting before each monsoon and cleaning the filter media every two to three years—ensures optimal performance.

Proven Models of Success: Case Studies

• Gujarat: In Navagam village, Panchmahal district, ICAR-IISWC’s installation of runoff filters (2017–20) increased the average groundwater table by 1.84 metres.
• The improved availability expanded the irrigated area by 12 hectares and enhanced crop yields—cotton productivity rose by 0.8 tonnes per hectare, and maize by 0.6 tonnes per hectare.
• Farmers’ incomes increased by ₹16,000 per hectare, with return-to-cost ratios ranging between 1.65 and 2.89.
• Karnataka: In Maramannahali village, Chitradurga district, a farmer transformed a low-yielding borewell into a recharge system and adopted drip irrigation.
• Annual income jumped from ₹53,500 in 2016–17 to ₹1.75 lakh in 2020–21, because of improved water availability and cultivation of high-yielding tomato and chilli varieties.

Blueprint for Punjab’s Water Future

• Punjab has the unique opportunity to turn a liability into a lifeline, with 1.4 million unused borewells. Large-scale conversion of abandoned borewells into recharge units could help:
• Absorb floodwaters during heavy monsoons, reducing surface runoff.
• Replenish depleted aquifers, supporting long-term water security.
• Lower public spending on flood infrastructure and groundwater extraction.
• Enhance agricultural resilience by stabilizing irrigation sources.
• If implemented through village-level programs, with technical support from ICAR-IISWC and state agencies, this approach could redefine climate adaptation in the Punjab plains—turning every abandoned borewell into a portal of renewal.

Context

• Kerala's forest department plants fruit and fodder trees to ease human-wildlife tensions.

About the Mission Food, Fodder, and Water (FFW) Project

• It is envisioned as a multi-sectoral rural resilience initiative launched to address three interconnected crises—food insecurity, fodder scarcity, and water stress.
• It builds upon the Jal Shakti Abhiyan (2019), National Fodder Mission (2012–2018), and National Food Security Mission (NFSM), integrating their outcomes under a single operational vision of climate-adaptive resource management.

Key Objectives

• Ensure Ecological Balance: Replenish natural food and water sources within forests and buffer zones.
• Prevent Human-Wildlife Encroachment: Reduce crop raiding, livestock attacks, and resource competition.
• Promote Coexistence: Support local communities through compensation and sustainable livelihood programs.
• Restore Forest Ecology: Improve degraded forest patches to sustain native herbivores.

Components of the Mission

• Food Security Component: Promotion of climate-resilient crops (millets, pulses, and oilseeds).
• Introduction of biofertilizers and micro-irrigation to boost yields.
• Integration of kitchen gardens and nutri-gardens in rural schools and Anganwadis.
• Fodder Security Component: Expansion of fodder banks and silage units under cooperative models.
• Revival of common grazing lands through reseeding and rotational grazing.
• Linking livestock missions with dairy productivity and veterinary care.
• Water Conservation Component: Construction of check dams, farm ponds, and percolation tanks.
• Revival of traditional water bodies like baolis, talabs, and johads.
• Emphasis on rainwater harvesting and aquifer recharge through community labour.

Policy Linkages

• United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs): SDG 2 (Zero Hunger), SDG 6 (Clean Water and Sanitation), SDG 13 (Climate Action), and SDG 15 (Life on Land).
• India’s National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC)—specifically the National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture (NMSA) and National Water Mission (NWM).

Context

• Recently, Iceland declared the potential collapse of the Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation (AMOC) as a direct threat to its national security and existence.

About Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation (AMOC)

• It is a large system of ocean currents that transports warm, salty water from the tropics northward and returns cooler, deeper water southward, often referred to as the ‘climate engine’ of the Atlantic Ocean.
• It governs the movement of warm and cold water across vast oceanic distances, influencing weather patterns, sea levels, and global temperatures.
• It is driven by differences in temperature (thermal) and salinity (haline) — hence the term thermohaline circulation.
• The most well-known component of the AMOC is the Gulf Stream, which carries warm water from the Gulf of Mexico across the North Atlantic toward Europe.

Why does the AMOC Matter?

• Regulate regional temperatures, particularly keeping northern Europe’s climate milder.
• Distribute ocean nutrients, supporting marine ecosystems and fisheries.
• Stabilize weather patterns, reducing the frequency of extreme events.
• Control sea levels, especially along the eastern coast of North America.

Signs of Weakening

• In recent decades, scientists have observed signs that the AMOC is slowing down. Key indicators include:
• Accelerating Greenland ice melt, which adds freshwater to the North Atlantic and disrupts salinity.
• Rising ocean temperatures, which alter density gradients and reduce water sinking.
• Shifts in Atlantic sea-surface patterns, observed through satellite and ocean buoy data.
• A study in Nature Climate Change (2021) suggested that the AMOC is now at its weakest point in over a millennium, signaling a potential tipping point.

Consequences of an AMOC Collapse

• A complete or partial collapse of the AMOC could trigger severe and irreversible climate changes, including:
• Harsher winters and shorter growing seasons in Europe.
• Rising sea levels along the U.S. East Coast due to redistribution of ocean mass.
• Disruption of monsoon systems, affecting billions of people in Africa and Asia.
• Shifts in marine biodiversity and collapse of key fisheries.
• These cascading impacts could destabilize economies, ecosystems, and even geopolitical relations.

Context

• Indonesia’s Mount Semeru, the country’s highest volcano at 3,676 metres, erupted 10 times recently, forcing emergency evacuations of over 1,000 residents, including 170 stranded climbers.

About Semeru’s Volatile History

• Mount Semeru, located in East Java, is part of the Pacific Ring of Fire, a seismically active belt known for frequent earthquakes and volcanic eruptions.
• Indonesia hosts over 120 active volcanoes, making it one of the most volcanically active regions globally.
• The climate patterns like La Niña often exacerbate volcanic risks in Indonesia by increasing rainfall, heightening the likelihood of secondary disasters such as lahars and landslides.

Environmental Consequences

• Ash emissions from Semeru’s plume are expected to influence local air quality and climate patterns in the short term.
• Fine ash particles can contaminate water sources and damage crops, posing challenges for local farmers.

Context

• Recently, the Government has announced a significant expansion of the Pradhan Mantri Fasal Bima Yojana (PMFBY).

About the PMFBY Expansion

• Crop losses due to wild animal attacks aim to be covered as a localised risk, and inundation of paddy due to rainfall and waterlogging starting from the 2026 Kharif season — which was excluded in 2018 — has been reinstated.

Addressing Long-Standing Farmer Concerns

• Farmers from states such as Madhya Pradesh, Odisha, and Chhattisgarh have consistently raised concerns over crop damage by wild animals like nilgai, wild boars, and elephants, which have led to substantial economic losses.
• However, such damages were not previously covered under PMFBY, leaving affected farmers without any financial safety net.
• The inclusion of wild animal attacks as a compensable risk under the scheme reflects the government’s recognition of this growing human-wildlife conflict issue, especially in forest-fringe and rainfed regions.

Reinstating Paddy Inundation Coverage

• The inundation of paddy fields due to excessive rainfall or waterlogging was removed from the PMFBY coverage in 2018 to streamline claims and reduce insurer liabilities.
• However, recent years have seen increasing instances of flash floods and unseasonal rains—particularly in eastern India—leading to massive paddy crop destruction.
• States like Bihar, Assam, and West Bengal, paddy farmers frequently face losses from waterlogging, with limited recovery mechanisms.
• The reinstatement of this clause is expected to provide much-needed financial relief and stability to millions of small and marginal farmers.

Context

• Recently, the Uttarakhand Forest Department issued the state’s first-ever shoot-at-sight orders for Himalayan black bears, following a surge of violent encounters.

About Himalayan Black Bears (Ursus Thibetanus Laniger)

• These are a subspecies of the Asiatic black bear, facing increasing threats from climate change, habitat loss, and human-wildlife conflict.
• IUCN Status: Vulnerable (as part of the broader Asiatic black bear species)
• WPA 1972 Status: Schedule I
• Habitat: Found in the Himalayan regions of India, Nepal, Bhutan, and parts of China and Pakistan, typically inhabiting temperate broadleaf forests and alpine scrub zones between 1,200–3,300 meters.

Conservation Concerns

• Climate Change Disruption: Rising temperatures are altering the bears’ natural hibernation cycles.
• In Uttarakhand, India, warmer winters have led to bears remaining active year-round, increasing the likelihood of human encounters.
• Human-Wildlife Conflict: In 2025, Uttarakhand reported 71 black bear attacks in just three months, resulting in six human deaths and the loss of 60 livestock.
• It led to controversial shoot-at-sight orders in Pauri district.
• Habitat Fragmentation: Expanding human settlements, deforestation, and infrastructure development are shrinking the bears’ natural range, forcing them into closer proximity with people.

Conservation Measures

• Protected Areas: Many populations reside within national parks and wildlife sanctuaries, such as Dachigam National Park (Jammu & Kashmir) and Great Himalayan National Park (Himachal Pradesh).
• Community Engagement: Conservationists advocate for coexistence strategies, including awareness campaigns, compensation for livestock loss, and bear-proof waste management in villages.

Context

• Recently, the Health departments in Kerala and Karnataka issued urgent public advisories, following a sudden rise in cases of amoebic meningoencephalitis (AME)—a rare but deadly brain infection often dubbed ‘brain fever’.

About the Amoebic Meningoencephalitis (Brain Fever)

• Amoebic meningoencephalitis is caused by Naegleria fowleri, a free-living amoeba found in warm freshwater sources like ponds, lakes, and rivers.
• The amoeba enters the human body through the nasal passage when contaminated water is inhaled, typically during bathing or swimming.
• Once in the brain, it destroys brain tissue, causing swelling and inflammation.
• Symptoms usually appear within 1–12 days and include severe headache, high fever, nausea and vomiting, stiff neck, confusion, seizures, or hallucinations.
• The disease progresses rapidly and is almost always fatal if not detected early.

Context

• Recently, the Directorate General of Foreign Trade (DGFT) raised India’s export quota of red sanders (Pterocarpus santalinus) from 1,180 tonnes to 1,290 tonnes, effective until March 31, 2027.

About Red Sanders

• Red sanders is a highly valued hardwood species native to the Eastern Ghats of southern India.
• Its rich red hue makes it prized for luxury furniture, musical instruments, and natural dyes.
• Red sanders has faced decades of illegal logging and smuggling, especially from Andhra Pradesh’s Seshachalam Hills.
• The wood’s high demand in East Asian markets — particularly China and Japan — has fueled a black market trade worth hundreds of crores.
• MoEFCC, in 2019, reiterated that only legally sourced and certified stock could be exported, typically from government-seized or naturally fallen trees.
• IUCN Red List: ‘Endangered’
• CITES: Appendix II

Context

• Recently, a three-judge bench of the Supreme Court has recalled its May 2025 ruling, popularly known as the Vanashakti Judgement, emphasizing the sanctity of the ‘prior environmental clearance’ process under the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986, declaring post-facto approvals legally untenable.

Background of the Vanashakti Judgment

• The Vanashakti judgment originated from a series of writ petitions filed by the environmental NGO Vanashakti against the Union of India, challenging the legality of granting post-facto environmental clearances.
• It means approvals granted after a project has already commenced operations without prior environmental clearance.
• In its original ruling, the Supreme Court had barred the practice of post-facto clearances, emphasizing that such approvals defeat the purpose of environmental laws and undermine the EIA process.
• The judgment was seen as a significant step toward strengthening environmental accountability and upholding the precautionary principle.

Implications and Reactions

• Environmental Concerns: The recall weakens environmental safeguards and sets a dangerous precedent by allowing violators to regularize illegal projects retroactively.
• Legal Debate: The case has reignited discussions about the separation of powers between the judiciary and the executive, and the role of courts in enforcing environmental norms.
• Policy Uncertainty: The reversal may create ambiguity in environmental regulation enforcement, potentially emboldening non-compliance among industrial actors.

Context

• Recently, the Supreme Court of India has directed the Union Government to formulate a uniform national policy for organ transplantation and emphasized the need for a centralized mechanism to oversee ethical, transparent, and equitable distribution of organs across the country.

Court’s Directives

• The Centre to create a national-level regulatory framework for organ procurement and distribution.
• All states and Union Territories to establish state-level agencies aligned with the national framework.
• Uniform laws and procedures for organ donation, registration, and transplant approval to prevent regional disparities.

Need for a Uniform Policy

• Currently, organ transplantation in India operates under the Transplantation of Human Organs and Tissues Act (THOTA), 1994, but its implementation varies across states.
• It has led to fragmented registries, bureaucratic hurdles, and inequitable access—particularly for economically weaker patients and those in rural areas.
• The Supreme Court observed that while states like Tamil Nadu, Maharashtra, and Kerala have well-established systems, other regions lag due to inadequate infrastructure and coordination.

Data and Concerns Highlighted

• India faces a severe organ shortage: only about 10,000 kidneys and 1,000 livers are transplanted annually against a demand of nearly 2 lakh.
• The cadaveric donation rate remains under 0.5 per million population, among the lowest globally.
• Lack of awareness, misinformation, and poor hospital coordination hinder donation rates.
• A centralized waitlist system like that of the U.S. (UNOS) is absent, leading to uneven organ allocation.

Towards a Transparent National System

• Integration of the National Organ and Tissue Transplant Organisation (NOTTO) with regional and state networks.
• Mandatory digital tracking systems for donor and recipient matching.
• Public awareness campaigns to boost voluntary organ donation.
• Collaboration between public and private hospitals under common ethical standards.

Way Forward

• The Supreme Court’s intervention is expected to pave the way for a cohesive national framework—ensuring organs are distributed based on medical urgency, not geography or privilege.
• A truly national approach must blend policy reform, technology, and ethical oversight to build public trust and save countless lives.

Context

• A recent dispute over the trade and transport of kendu leaves in Odisha has reignited debates over the interpretation and implementation of the Forest Rights Act (FRA), 2006.
• It underscores the persistent tension between the state forest department’s monopoly and the forest-dwelling communities’ rights to manage and sell minor forest produce (MFPs).

Core of the Dispute

• At the heart of the dispute lies the Odisha Kendu Leaves (Control of Trade) Act, 1961, which vests exclusive trading rights in the state government.
• Under this law, the Odisha Forest Development Corporation (OFDC) controls collection, processing, and sale of kendu leaves — a high-value non-timber forest product used in bidi (traditional cigarette) manufacturing.
• However, Gram Sabhas and tribal cooperatives in several districts have accused the state of violating the community forest resource (CFR) rights guaranteed under the FRA.
• These communities argue that the monopoly of OFDC negates their economic autonomy and contravenes Section 3(1)(c) of the FRA, which recognizes the right of forest dwellers to own, use, and dispose of minor forest produce.

Socioeconomic Stakes

• Kendu leaves represent a crucial livelihood source for over 800,000 tribal families in Odisha.
• Studies demonstrate that kendu leaf collection contributes up to 40–60% of annual income in forest-dependent villages during the lean agricultural season.
• The delayed payments and low procurement rates fixed by OFDC have worsened economic distress.
• By contrast, in states like Chhattisgarh and Maharashtra, where Gram Sabhas directly manage kendu leaf trade post-FRA, income levels have improved significantly.

State vs. Community

• State Position: The Odisha Forest Department argues that centralized trade ensures quality control, worker safety, and stable revenue for welfare schemes.
• Community Perspective: Tribal federations, argue this structure undermines local self-governance.
• They contend that Gram Sabhas, not state corporations, should decide trade modalities as per FRA guidelines.
• It has led to protests and legal petitions, with communities demanding repeal of the 1961 Act or its alignment with FRA provisions.

Policy Gaps and the Way Forward

• Devolution of trade rights to Gram Sabhas through state notifications.
• Transparent price fixation and decentralized procurement mechanisms.
• Abolition or amendment of the Odisha Kendu Leaves (Control of Trade) Act, 1961.
• Creation of joint forest management committees integrating traditional institutions.

Context

• Cystic Fibrosis (CF) has long symbolized the gap between medical innovation and accessibility.
• While treatments like Trikafta revolutionized patient outcomes, their staggering cost — around US $325,300 per patient per year — placed them beyond the reach of most.

About Cystic Fibrosis (CF)

• It is a rare genetic disorder caused by mutations in the CFTR gene, leading to thick mucus buildup in lungs, pancreas, and other organs. It severely impacts respiratory and digestive systems.
• Approximately 162,000–188,000 people live with CF across 94 countries, though only 12% currently receive triple combination therapy due to affordability issues.
• The condition is more prevalent in Western populations but is increasingly being recognized in India due to better genetic and clinical awareness.
• The price barrier is catastrophic — particularly given that CF life expectancy remains under 20 years without proper treatment for low and middle income nations.

Why Bangladesh?

• Bangladesh, as a Least Developed Country (LDC), remains exempt from the WTO’s TRIPS (Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights) agreement until 2026.
• It allows Bangladeshi firms to legally produce patented drugs for domestic and export use to other LDCs, bypassing expensive licensing restrictions.
• Bangladesh exports to 150+ countries, including several in Europe and North America, producing 97% of its own drug requirements.
• It remains the only LDC to fully capitalize on TRIPS flexibilities to develop a globally competitive pharma ecosystem — one marked by stringent regulatory oversight, efficient manufacturing, and ethical marketing practices.

Why Not India?

• India, long dubbed the ‘pharmacy of the world’, might seem the natural partner for such a venture.
• But its adherence to TRIPS and its complex, fragmented regulatory framework limit flexibility.
• Indian manufacturers often depend on voluntary licensing from multinational corporations — arrangements that favor the patent-holders and restrict geographic reach.
• Furthermore, India’s credibility has been dented by recent safety scandals, including toxic cough syrups linked to child deaths in The Gambia, Uzbekistan, and within India itself — attributes to ‘regulatory chaos’ and lack of coordination between central and state drug authorities.
• By contrast, Bangladesh’s centralized and disciplined regulatory structure offers a model of order and compliance, balancing innovation with public health priorities.