Down To Earth (01–15 May, 2025)

Key Findings of the ICIMOD Report

• Declining Snow Persistence Across Major River Basins: The Ganga basin, which recorded its highest snow persistence at +30.2% in 2015, dropped to a 23-year low of -24.1% in 2025.
  • The Indus basin saw a steep decline from +19.5% in 2020 to -27.9% in 2025, threatening early summer water supply for nearly 300 million people.
• The Brahmaputra basin, which peaked at +27.7% in 2019, fell to -27.9% in 2025, posing risks to hydropower generation and agriculture.
• Impact on Water Availability: The Tibetan Plateau, the source of many North Indian rivers, saw snow persistence plummet from +92.4% in 2022 to -29.1% in 2025, highlighting its climate sensitivity.
• The Mekong (-51.9%) and Salween (-48.3%) basins recorded the most alarming declines, followed by the Brahmaputra (-27.9%), Yangtze (-26.3%), and Ganga (-24.1%).
• Threats to Agriculture and Hydropower: Reduced seasonal meltwater means lower river runoffs, leading to early-summer water stress for downstream communities already facing intensifying heat spells.
• Hydropower projects dependent on glacial meltwater may experience reduced efficiency, affecting energy supply.

Urgent Call for Action

• Improved Water Management Strategies: Investing in seasonal water storage and efficient meltwater use.
• Stronger Drought Preparedness: Enhancing early warning systems for water shortages.
• Regional Cooperation: Strengthening transboundary water agreements to ensure equitable distribution of resources.

Conclusion

• The declining snow persistence in the Brahmaputra, Ganga, and Indus basins signals a critical water security challenge for millions.
• As climate change accelerates, science-led policies and proactive water management will be essential to mitigate risks and ensure long-term resilience.

Role of Aerosols in India’s Climate

• Sunlight Reflection and Cooling Effect: Aerosols, released from fossil fuel combustion, crop burning, and industrial activities, act like a sunshade, reducing solar radiation reaching the ground.
• This effect has led to India warming only about 0.6°C since the 1950s, compared to higher warming rates in other regions.
• Complex Interactions with Clouds: Aerosols can increase cloud cover, further cooling the surface.
• However, under certain conditions, they can also reduce cloud formation, leading to unpredictable temperature shifts.

Science Behind Proxies

• Genetic Editing and Cloning: Scientists use CRISPR gene-editing technology to modify the DNA of closely related species.
• The dire wolf proxy, for example, was created by altering gray wolf DNA to mimic the extinct species.
• De-Extinction Projects: Companies like Colossal Biosciences are leading efforts to bring back species like the dodo and woolly mammoth.
• These projects aim to restore lost biodiversity but raise ethical concerns about ecosystem balance and genetic authenticity.

Future of Proxies in Conservation

• Restoring Ecosystems: Scientists hope that proxies can help reintroduce lost ecological functions.
• Ethical Debates: The question remains— should we focus on preserving existing species rather than reviving extinct ones?
• Technological Advancements: As genetic research progresses, more species may be revived, but their impact on biodiversity remains uncertain.

Key Findings from the Assessment

• Escalating Threats to Biodiversity: Nearly six times as many species—particularly amphibians, birds, and mammals—have deteriorated (1,220 species) compared to those showing improvement (201 species) between 1980 and 2024.
• The decline in invertebrates and aquatic species has been more severe due to habitat destruction and climate change.
• Impact of Conservation Efforts: Despite global challenges, protected areas and targeted conservation actions have contributed to the recovery of certain species.
• Just over 51.8% of assessed species had at least one documented conservation effort, including habitat restoration and wildlife protection laws.
• Species Most Affected: Amphibians, reptiles, birds, mammals, and corals have benefited more from conservation initiatives than aquatic species and invertebrates.
• Species dependent on marine ecosystems continue to face extreme environmental pressures.

Urgency for Conservation Policies

• Expanding Protected Areas: Governments and environmental groups must accelerate efforts to establish more wildlife reserves and marine sanctuaries.
• Stronger Climate Action: Addressing climate change is crucial in preventing habitat loss and ensuring species survival.
• Increased Funding for Conservation: More global investment is needed to support scientific research, wildlife protection, and anti-poaching efforts.

About the Pandemic Treaty of WHO

• It is aimed at enhancing pandemic prevention, preparedness, and response.
• It is developed by the Intergovernmental Negotiating Body (INB), and expected to be presented at the 78th World Health Assembly in May 2025 for consideration.

Key Provisions of the Pandemic Treaty

• Pathogen Access and Benefit-Sharing System (PABS): Establishes a framework for rapid sharing of genetic sequences and pathogen samples to accelerate the development of diagnostics, vaccines, and treatments.
• Requires manufacturers to provide 10% of real-time vaccine production as donations and another 10% at affordable rates.
• Pandemic Prevention Measures: Promotes a One Health approach, integrating human, animal, and environmental health to prevent future outbreaks.
• Strengthens global research and development capacities to ensure geographically diverse production of pandemic-related health products.
• Health System Resilience and Workforce Mobilization: Calls for investment in national and global health emergency workforces, ensuring rapid response capabilities.
• Establishes a coordinating financial mechanism to support pandemic preparedness efforts.
• Global Supply Chain and Logistics Network: Aims to create a secure and efficient global supply chain for medical equipment, vaccines, and essential health products.
• Encourages technology transfer and knowledge-sharing to strengthen regional manufacturing capacities.

Challenges and Future Considerations

• Equity Concerns: Developing nations have raised concerns about fair access to vaccines and treatments, urging stronger commitments from wealthier countries.
• Wealthier nations have resisted binding commitments, particularly regarding equitable vaccine distribution.
• Lack of clear enforcement mechanisms raises concerns about whether these commitments will be honored.
• Implementation Uncertainty: While the treaty outlines ambitious goals, enforcement mechanisms remain unclear, particularly regarding binding commitments on vaccine distribution.
• Final Negotiations: The treaty’s provisions, including PABS, will undergo further negotiations, with final agreements expected by May 2026.

About the Gully Erosion

• It is one of the most overlooked yet destructive forms of land degradation, carving deep scars across landscapes and threatening agriculture, infrastructure, and livelihoods.
• A recent study highlights that 77 districts in India have unmanaged or active gullies that require urgent rehabilitative intervention.
• The crisis is exacerbated by climate change and land-use changes, making gully erosion a major driver of global land degradation.

Understanding Gully Erosion

• Gullies are erosional channels formed by surface and subsurface runoff, cutting deep into the soil.
• It is highly unpredictable and dynamic, leading to severe soil loss and land instability, unlike other types of erosion.
• In India, Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh, and Rajasthan are among the worst-affected states.

Impact of Gully Erosion

• Loss of Topsoil: Gully erosion removes the fertile topsoil layer, which is essential for agriculture. Once lost, it takes decades or centuries to regenerate.
• The removal of fertile land leads to declining agricultural productivity, threatening food security (SDG 2: Zero Hunger) and farmer livelihoods.
• Water Scarcity: Gully erosion disrupts the natural water-holding capacity of the land, increasing surface runoff and reducing groundwater recharge, leading to water stress and droughts. (SDG 6: Clean Water and Sanitation)
• Ecosystem Degradation: Erosion leads to habitat fragmentation and biodiversity loss, impacting local flora and fauna.
• Sediment Pollution: The displaced soil often ends up in rivers and reservoirs, leading to siltation, water pollution, and reduced storage capacity.
• India has pledged to restore 26 million hectares of degraded land by 2030, but gully erosion remains a major obstacle to achieving this goal.

Urgent Need for Rehabilitation

• Soil conservation techniques, such as terracing and reforestation, can help stabilize gullies.
• Community-led land restoration programs are essential to prevent further degradation.
• Government intervention and policy reforms must prioritize gully erosion management to protect vulnerable regions.

Restoring the Forests: A Community Effort

• India’s forests are vital for biodiversity, climate regulation, and local livelihoods, yet they face increasing threats from deforestation, land degradation, and climate change.
• Across the country, community-led initiatives have emerged as powerful forces in forest restoration, demonstrating how grassroots efforts can reverse environmental damage and promote sustainable conservation.

Community-Led Forest Restoration Initiatives

• Champawat’s Women-Led Forest Revival: In Manar village, Uttarakhand, women known as Van Sahelis restored 11.6 hectares of degraded forest land.
• Their efforts revived groundwater levels, reduced soil erosion, and improved access to firewood and water.
• Sustainable Conservation Practices:
• Planting native tree species to restore forest cover.
• Preventing illegal logging and overgrazing to protect biodiversity.
• Encouraging water conservation techniques to revive groundwater levels.

• Eco Clubs for Mission LiFE: It encourages students to participate in tree planting, waste reduction, and water conservation.
• Over 5.18 crore saplings have been planted nationwide, fostering environmental awareness among youth.
• Addressing Deforestation in India: Satellite assessments reveal a steady decline in dense, natural forests, despite reported gains in forest cover.
• Community-driven afforestation projects aim to restore degraded lands, particularly in tribal and ecologically sensitive regions.

Impact of the Silent Revolution

• Groundwater levels have improved, ensuring better access to drinking water.
• Forest regeneration has reduced soil erosion, protecting agricultural lands.
• Women now spend less time collecting firewood, allowing them to focus on education, income generation, and community development.

Challenges and Future Directions

• Balancing Development and Conservation: Infrastructure projects often lead to forest fragmentation, requiring sustainable landuse policies.
• Strengthening Community Participation: Expanding grassroots conservation programs can enhance long-term forest protection.
• Government Support and Policy Reforms: Increased funding and policy backing for community-led afforestation will be crucial in achieving India’s land restoration goals.

Key Findings of the Policy Paper

• Shrinking Agricultural Land: By 2047, farmland availability is expected to decline to 176 million hectares (mha) from the current 180 mha.
• India’s net sown area is projected to decrease to 138 mha, requiring intensification of cropping.
• Surging Demand for Diverse Crops:
• Fruits: Expected to reach 233 million tonnes, growing at 3% annually.
• Vegetables: Forecast to increase to 365 million tonnes, with a 2.3% annual growth rate.
• Pulses: Demand projected to double to 49 million tonnes.
• Edible oils and sugar: Expected to rise by 50% and 29%, respectively.
• Declining Landholdings: The average landholding size is expected to shrink from 1 hectare to 0.6 hectare by 2047, making large-scale farming more difficult.
• Smaller landholdings may affect economies of scale, making farming less economically viable.
• Surge in Cropping intensity: It will likely rise to 170%, up from the current 156%, reflecting the need for better yield optimization.

Policy Recommendations for Sustainable Agriculture

• Diversification of Crops: Gradually reduce reliance on rice and wheat and promote alternative crops to enhance nutritional security.
• Technological Advancements: Invest in precision farming, efficient irrigation, and crop rotation techniques to optimize yields despite land constraints.
• Strengthening Market Linkages: Improve storage facilities, transportation networks, and agricultural policies to support farmers transitioning to diverse crops.
• Environmental Considerations: Increased cropping intensity may strain water and energy resources, requiring sustainable farming practices to mitigate environmental impact.

Why Thorium? A Safer and Cleaner Nuclear Fuel

• Lower Waste and Higher Efficiency: Thorium reactors produce less radioactive waste than uranium-based reactors.
• They burn fuel more efficiently, reducing plutonium waste—a major long-term environmental and security concern—by over 80%.
• Meltdown-Proof Design: Unlike conventional nuclear reactors, molten salt reactors using thorium are intrinsically safe, eliminating the risk of core meltdowns.
• No Weapons-Grade By-Products: Thorium does not produce weapons-grade plutonium, making it a secure energy option with non-proliferation advantages.

China’s Leadership in Thorium Energy Development

• Building on Past Research: While U.S. scientists developed and tested molten salt reactors in the 1960s, the program was shelved in favor of uranium.
• China’s renewed investment in thorium technology marks a shift toward nextgeneration nuclear solutions.
• Scaling Up to Commercial Viability: China is already constructing a 10-MW thorium reactor, signaling the transition toward large-scale energy production.

Future Implications and Global Competition

• A Game-Changer for Clean Energy: If commercial thorium reactors prove viable, they could revolutionize global nuclear energy with safer and more sustainable technology.
• Countries like India and Norway have explored thorium-based reactors, but China’s recent advances may accelerate international interest in thorium energy deployment.

About the Bird flu (aka Avian Influenza, H5N1)

• It is a highly contagious viral infection that primarily affects birds but has also been known to infect humans and other mammals.

How H5N1 Spreads

• Transmission Among Birds: H5N1 spreads through direct contact with infected birds, contaminated surfaces, or bird droppings.
• Wild birds, especially migratory species, play a key role in spreading the virus across regions.
• Human Infections: While human cases are rare, infections occur through close contact with infected birds or contaminated environments.
• The virus does not easily spread from human to human, but mutations could increase its transmissibility.

Scientific Analysis

• The globally circulating Clade 2.3.4.4b has been infecting mammals, wild birds, poultry, and humans since 2022, but scientists in 2024 warned of a new H5N1 reassortant strain affecting both birds and people in the Greater Mekong region.

Symptoms and Health Risks

• Symptoms in Humans:
• Fever, cough, sore throat, and difficulty breathing.
• Severe cases may lead to pneumonia, respiratory failure, and multi-organ damage.
• Mortality Rate:
• H5N1 has a high fatality rate, with over 50% of reported human cases resulting in death.
• Early detection and antiviral treatment improve survival chances.
• Vaccination and Treatment:
• While vaccines for poultry exist, human vaccines are still in development.
• Antiviral drugs like oseltamivir (Tamiflu) help reduce severity in infected individuals.

Key Findings on PM10 Pollution

• Consistently High Pollution Levels: The study found that all monitored cities failed to meet NAAQS limits, reflecting the stubborn nature of particulate pollution.
• Even with air quality policies in place, pollution levels remained dangerously high, affecting millions of residents.
• Persistent Air Quality Violations: Studies indicate that all 11 monitored metropolitan cities have failed to meet NAAQS standards for PM10 between 2021 and 2024.
• Northern cities, including Delhi and Patna, recorded dangerously high PM10 concentrations, exacerbating health risks.
• Limited Impact of Policy Measures: Despite initiatives like the National Clean Air Programme (NCAP), pollution levels remain stubbornly high.
• Factors such as vehicular emissions, industrial pollution, construction dust, and crop residue burning continue to drive poor air quality.

Health and Economic Implications

• Respiratory Diseases: Long-term exposure to PM10 pollution increases cases of asthma, lung infections, and cardiovascular diseases.
• Economic Costs: Air pollution leads to reduced productivity, higher healthcare expenses, and losses in tourism and local businesses.
• Policy Reforms Needed: Strengthening air pollution regulations, expanding clean energy adoption, and improving urban green spaces could mitigate the ongoing crisis.

Key Objectives of the Policy

• Promoting Green Hydrogen Production: Encouraging biomass gasification, electrolysis of wastewater, and hydrogen fuel blending.
• Targeting a production capacity of 100 kilotonnes per annum by 2030.
• Infrastructure Development: Establishing hydrogen hubs and manufacturing facilities for electrolyzers.
• Strengthening storage and transportation networks for hydrogen distribution.
• Financial Incentives and Investments: Offering tax exemptions, subsidies, and viability gap funding to attract investors.
• Facilitating public-private partnerships for large-scale hydrogen projects.

Strategic Importance for Punjab

• Economic Growth: Green hydrogen can boost industrial competitiveness and create new employment opportunities.
• Energy Security: Reducing dependence on fossil fuels and integrating renewable energy sources.
• Environmental Benefits: Supporting India’s net-zero targets by cutting carbon emissions in key sectors.

Challenges and Future Prospects

• High Initial Costs: Green hydrogen production requires significant capital investment in technology and infrastructure.
• Policy Implementation: Effective execution depends on clear regulatory frameworks and stakeholder collaboration.
• Global Competitiveness: Punjab must align its strategy with international hydrogen markets to attract investments.

About the Disaster Management (Amendment) Bill, 2024

• It was introduced in the Lok Sabha on August 1, 2024, aiming to enhance India's disaster preparedness and response framework.
• The Bill amends the Disaster Management Act, 2005, strengthening the roles of national, state, and district disaster management authorities while introducing new provisions for urban disaster management and risk assessment.

Key Amendments in the Bill

• Enhanced Functions of NDMA and SDMA: These are aimed to be responsible for preparing disaster management plans, rather than just reviewing them.
• NDMA aims to conduct post-disaster audits to assess preparedness and response effectiveness.
• Creation of Disaster Databases: The Bill mandates the development of national and state disaster databases, containing information on disaster risks, fund allocation, expenditure, and mitigation plans.
• Urban Disaster Management Authorities: States will be empowered to establish Urban Disaster Management Authorities for state capitals and municipal corporation cities.
• These authorities will be led by the Municipal Commissioner and District Collector, ensuring localized disaster response.
• Formation of SDRF: The Bill allows states to constitute their own disaster response forces, similar to the NDRF.
• SDRFs will specialize in rapid disaster response and mitigation efforts.
• Regulatory Powers for NDMA: NDMA will now have the authority to make regulations under the Act, subject to central government approval.

Impact of the Amendments

• Improved Disaster Preparedness: Strengthening NDMA and SDMA functions will ensure better coordination and risk assessment.
• Localized Disaster Response: Urban Disaster Management Authorities will enhance city-level disaster mitigation efforts.
• Data-Driven Decision Making: The creation of disaster databases will help policymakers allocate resources effectively.

Key Provisions of the Act

• Regulation of Bovine Breeding Activities: The Act mandates quality control in bovine semen production, processing, storage, and distribution.
• It establishes guidelines for artificial insemination to prevent genetic disorders and improve breed quality.
• Licensing and Certification: Individuals and organizations engaged in bovine breeding must obtain licenses from the state government.
• Certification ensures that breeding bulls and semen banks meet scientific and health standards.

Monitoring and Compliance

• The Act empowers state veterinary authorities to conduct inspections and audits of breeding centers.
• Violations of breeding regulations may result in penalties or suspension of licenses.

Impact on Livestock Development

• Enhancing Dairy Productivity: Scientific breeding methods will improve milk yield and genetic traits of cattle.
• Preventing Genetic Disorders: Regulated breeding practices will reduce hereditary diseases in bovines.
• Boosting Rural Economy: Strengthening livestock breeding will benefit farmers, dairy cooperatives, and animal husbandry enterprises.

About the Drug-Resistant Gonorrhoea

• Drug-resistant gonorrhoea is emerging as a major public health threat, with strains of Neisseria gonorrhoeae showing resistance to multiple antibiotics.

Why Is Gonorrhoea Becoming Drug-Resistant?

• Overuse of Antibiotics: Excessive use of antibiotics has led to bacterial mutations, making gonorrhoea harder to treat.
• Genetic Adaptation: The bacterium rapidly evolves, developing resistance to multiple drug classes.
• Global Spread: Drug-resistant strains have been detected in Kenya, Europe, and the U.S., raising concerns about untreatable infections.

Recent Breakthroughs in Treatment

• Gepotidacin (New Oral Antibiotic): A study published in The Lancet found that gepotidacin, an oral antibiotic, successfully treated 93% of gonorrhoea cases.
• It offers a potential alternative for patients who cannot tolerate injections or standard antibiotics.
• Challenges in Treatment: While gepotidacin is effective for rectal infections, it is less effective for throat infections (78% cure rate vs. 94% with standard treatment).
• More research is needed to assess its long-term efficacy.

Public Health Implications

• Need for Global Surveillance: Health agencies must monitor drug-resistant strains to prevent widespread outbreaks.
• Promoting Safe Practices: Encouraging safe sex practices and early diagnosis can help reduce transmission.
• Developing New Antibiotics: Investment in novel drug research is crucial to combat antibiotic-resistant infections.

How Gepotidacin Works?

• Gepotidacin blocks bacterial DNA replication, using a novel mechanism different from traditional antibiotics.
• It is already used to treat urinary tract infections (UTIs) and has now demonstrated effectiveness against gonorrhoea.

Clinical Trial Results

• The study involved 628 participants with uncomplicated gonorrhoea.
• 93% of patients treated with gepotidacin were cured, compared to 91% who received the standard treatment (ceftriaxone injection + azithromycin pill).
• The drug was particularly effective in rectal infections, showing 100% success, though it was less effective for throat infections (78% cure rate vs. 94% with standard treatment).

About the Goldman Environmental Prize

• It is often referred to as the ‘Green Nobel’ recognizes outstanding grassroots environmental activists from around the world.
• It was founded in 1989, and it has honored 233 winners from 98 countries, celebrating individuals who fight for environmental justice, conservation, and sustainability.
• The prize has awarded $32 million in funding to grassroots environmental leaders.

Winners of 2025

• Laurene Allen (United States): Led a campaign against PFAS-contaminated drinking water, forcing an industrial giant to shut down after 20 years of pollution.
• Mari Luz Canaquiri Murayari (Peru): Secured a landmark court ruling granting legal personhood to the Marañón River, ensuring its protection from contamination.
• Semia Gharbi (Tunisia): Exposed a corrupt waste trafficking scheme, leading to the return of 6,000 tons of illegally exported waste from Italy to Tunisia.
• Besjana Guri & Olsi Nika (Albania): Successfully campaigned for the Vjosa River’s designation as a Wild River National Park, protecting 250 miles of free-flowing waterways.
• Batmunkh Luvsandash (Mongolia): Advocated for the creation of a 66,000-acre protected area in the Eastern Gobi Desert, safeguarding endangered species.
• Carlos Mallo Molina (Canary Islands): Led efforts to halt the construction of Fonsalía Port, preventing damage to a 170,000-acre marine protected area.

Impact and Legacy of the Goldman Prize

• Since its founding in 1989, the Goldman Environmental Prize has honored 233 winners from 98 nations.
• Many recipients have gone on to become government officials, NGO leaders, and Nobel Prize laureates.
• The 2025 winners exemplify the power of grassroots activism, proving that ordinary individuals can drive extraordinary change.